Learning Objectives
In this lab students will
- Be able to define anatomy and physiology
- Be able to label external and internal anatomical structures using proper scientific terminology.
- Explore and identify the major internal organs of the digestive system of the fetal pig.
- Describe the relative positions of the major digestive tract organs and the accessory organs of the digestive system.
- Be able to list the parts of the digestive tract in the order of their use during digestion.
- Identify the similarities and differences to human and pig anatomy and physiology.
- Be able to read and understand food labels.
• All living things are composed of one or more cells.
• As we have seen during the semester, some organisms consist of a single cell like bacteria and most protists.
• Other organisms are composed of many cells that function together.
• These last three labs will focus on multicellular organisms. More specifically these labs will focus on animals in the class Mammalia.
• There are different levels of complexity that we can arrange the components of a multicellular organism into.
• Cells – are the basic structural and functional unit of life.
• Tissues - are groups of similar cells that perform the same function for an organ.
There are four types of tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle. These are discussed in more detail in the lecture.
• Organs - Contain two or more types of tissue that work together to perform a specific function. Examples of organs in humans include the stomach, heart, lungs and liver.
• Organ Systems - are a group of organs that work closely together to perform a complex, integrated process.
• It is not uncommon for an organ to belong to more than one organ system (Example - the pancreas has functions in both the digestive system and the endocrine system).
• Pigs are a commonly dissected organism in biology labs for many reasons.
• Pigs, like humans, are mammals having hair on their bodies and mammary glands to nourish their young.
• The fetal pig is used because of the similarities between pig and human organ systems.
• The pig, like the human, is adapted for processing a variety of foods.
• The digestive system consists of the same set of organs and accessory organs responsible for moving food in a continuous process from mouth to anus.
• However, there are some anatomical differences, the pig lacks an appendix. In pigs the large intestine (or colon) is arranged differently than it is in humans.
• In this exercise you will become familiar with anatomical terms, the external anatomy of a fetal pig and the digestive system.
These are terms used to precisely describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.
When being told where to locate a structure these terms will be used.
• Anterior - means coming first or toward the front end; in the pig (or any animal that walks on all 4 legs) this means closer to the head or cranial area. In humans (or any animal that walks on 2 legs) means the ventral or belly surface, since this comes first.
• Posterior - means coming last or toward the hind end; in the pig this refers to nearer the caudal or tail end, in humans this refers to the dorsal, or back side.
• Dorsal – toward the back.
• Ventral – toward the belly or underside.
• Superior – toward the upper surface; in pigs this is also the dorsal or back, in humans it is towards the head.
• Inferior – toward the lower surface; in pigs this will be towards the belly or ventral surface, in humans it is away from the head.
• Medial – toward the midline or center of the body.
• Lateral – toward the sides; away from the center of the body.
The next two terms are only used for appendages (arms, legs or tail)
• Proximal – closer to the trunk.
• Distal – farther from the trunk.
• It is also important to note that when we discuss LEFT and RIGHT we are discussing the subjects left or right. this is most often the reverse of your left or right. This may seem confusing at first. However, it is important that we have a standard for left and right. If I am standing at the head of a patient and you are standing at their feet and we need to amputate their left foot - we better both be amputating the same foot!
• To determine the sex of the fetal pig, first locate the anus which is located ventral to the tail.
• If the fetal pig has a small opening just ventral to the anus, and a fleshy protuberance just above the opening, then the pig is a female.
• If the fetal pig has an opening just posterior to the umbilical cord and a sac-like scrotum near the anus, the pig is a male.
• Use Figure 10.1 to help you distinguish the sex of a pig.
• Note that both male and female pigs have one urogenital opening and one anal opening.
• The urogenital opening is a common opening for the urinary system and the reproductive system.
• Also note that both male and male pigs have mammary papilla.
• On the head of the pig there are external ears or pinnae. These help the pig hear by focusing sound into the middle ear.
• On the pig's snout there are external nostrils or nares. The snout is specially designed with a round disk of cartilage on its end to help the pig dig in the ground in search of food like roots and truffles.
• On the chin there is a small tuft of sensory hairs called vibrissae. These help them feel around in the dark.
• On the pig's ventral surface is the umbilical cord. These are fetal pigs so they still have this fetal structure.
• Within the umbilical cord there are 3 blood vessels; 2 small umbilical arteries that carry blood containing waste from the fetus to the placenta and one large umbilical vein, which carries oxygen and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus.
• Use Figure 10.2 to help you locate the external anatomical structures including the elbow, wrist, knee and ankle.
• The digestive system can be subdivided into two sets of organs; the organs forming the digestive tract (aka the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract) and the accessory organs.
• The digestive tract is a continuous tube from the mouth to the anus. Food passes through these hollow organs.
• The accessory organs secrete substances into the digestive tract to aid in digestion. Food does not pass through these solid organs.
• During the process of digestion there is a coordinated series of mechanical and chemical steps that break food down before nutrients are absorb and utilized by individual cells of the body for energy.
Quick overview of the Digestive Tract
• Food first enters the digestive tract through the oral cavity (mouth). As the food is swallowed in passes into the pharynx (throat) and then down the muscular esophagus and into the stomach. After the stomach it enters the small intestine (small in diameter but very long). The small intestine has 3 regions: the duodenum, jejunum and the ileum. What has not been absorbed into the body by this point will enter the large intestine (large in diameter, but shorter in length). Another name for the large intestine is the colon. The remaining undigested material then enters the rectum and then exits the body via the anus.
• Now let's look at what happens to the food as it passes through each of these structures in more detail.
• Digestion begins with the mechanical grinding of food by teeth in the mouth and the chemical breakdown of starch in foods by enzymes in saliva secreted by salivary glands.
• With the help of the tongue the bolus (the soft mass of food) is moved to the pharynx and then to the to the stomach via the esophagus.
• In the stomach food is mechanically churned and chemically broken down further by the action of acids and enzymes.
• The acids and enzymes here start the digestion of proteins.
• The acid in the stomach also protects the body against bacterial invasion.
• The main function of the stomach is to store food for a brief time and move it into the intestines in small amounts after it is liquefied.
• Peristalsis is the waves of smooth muscle contraction that move food through the digestive tract. In the stomach it is used to mix the enzymes and acid with the food and move a small amount of chyme (the liquified, acidified mass of food) into the small intestine.
• Movement of food out of the stomach is regulated by the pyloric valve (located between the stomach and the duodenum).
• Food is prevented from moving back up into the esophagus by another valve called the cardiac sphincter (located between the esophagus and the stomach).
• When the cardiac sphincter fails we say we have 'heartburn". This is the acids burning the lining of our esophagus, not our heart.
• Figure 10.4 shows the stomach filled with chyme.
• Before passing into the small intestine the chyme is neutralized by secretions from the pancreas.
• Most digestion occurs in the small intestine with the help of secretions from accessory organs including the liver, gall bladder and pancreas, which aid in breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
• The small intestine is also the major site of nutrient absorption and it is the longest part of the digestive tract.
• The small intestine contains a large surface area, including fingerlike projections called villi, and even smaller microvilli on its cells. The increased surface area allows more nutrients to be absorbed.
• The absorbed nutrients diffuse across the cells of the small intestines into the blood stream and travel to cells of the body.
• Figure 10.5 shows a cross section of the small intestine with the villi and microvilli.
• The liver produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder.
• Bile is a mixture of bile salts and bicarbonate.
• Bile salts emulsify fat (that means they break fat down into smaller globules).
The pancreas secretes bicarbonate, to neutralize the acid from the stomach, and enzymes that aid in the digestion of fats.
• Both pancreatic secretions and bile enter the small intestines through the bile duct.
• The large intestine, also called the colon, is about 5 feet of tubing in an adult human.
• All that remains of the chyme is indigestible material, water, bacteria, and a few other things that could not be absorbed.
• The large intestine's primary role is to store fecal material, absorb water from it and propel it to the rectum.
Figure 10.6 highlights the organs found in the abdominal cavity.
The Liver is the large, dark colored organ just below the diaphragm.
The gallbladder is the small sac-like organ on the underside of the liver.
The stomach is the sac like organ in the abdominal cavity below the liver.
The large intestine is the thick, coiled short mass in the abdominal cavity.
The pancreas is the granular organ below the stomach.
The small intestine is the coiled mass that takes up most of the abdominal cavity.
The rectum is the tube connecting the small intestine to the anus.
Also shown, but not part of the digestive system are the following:
The diagram is the thin muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
The spleen is the ribbon-shaped organ to the left of the pig’s stomach.
The kidney is the bean-shaped organ dorsal to the abdominal organs.
The ureter is the tube connecting the kidney to the urinary bladder.
The urinary bladder which located between the two umbilical arteries.
Click on this image to trace the path of food through the digestive tract
• You can pick up any edible item in a supermarket and it will contain a food label like the one shown here.
• Food labels contain Nutrition Facts about the contents of the food in the package. Using the information contained in a food label, you can make informed decisions about whether or not to purchase and consume the item.
• The CDC recommends that you eat more foods that are higher in vitamins and minerals (especially calcium and iron) and that you eat fewer foods high in added sugars, saturated fats and salt. They also recommend that you avoid trans fats.
• We will use the example on the Food label shown here to read and analyze food labels. The sample provided is from a cereal box food label.
• The first piece of information on the food label is the Serving Size. In the label above the cereal serving size is 1 cup or 236ml. Below that is the Servings Per Container. In the cereal above, there is one serving in the container.
• Below the thick dark line appears information about each serving. The first two pieces of information about each serving are the Calories and Calories from Fat. From the label, we can see that the number of calories per serving is 80, and the number of calories from fat is 0.
• The next section contains information about the number of grams and % Daily Value for sodium and three major nutrients – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins.
• Lipids are listed first as Total Fat (including Saturated Fat and Trans Fat) and Cholesterol. Both the number of grams and the % Daily Value are provided.
• In the sample label above, there are 0 g of fat and less than 5 mg of cholesterol in each serving of this product.
• Sodium is listed next. There are 120 mg of sodium in each serving of this cereal.
• Total Carbohydrate, including Dietary Fiber and Sugars are listed next as both grams and % Daily Value. This product contains 11 g of Total Carbohydrate. (How is it distributed between Dietary Fiber and Sugars?) • • • The last item listed in this section is Protein in grams and % DailyValue. There are 9 g of protein in each serving of this product.
• The last (bottom) section of the food label contains information about vitamin and mineral content in percent. Vitamins are listed first, followed by minerals. For example, in the cereal for the label above, each serving contains 10% of the % Daily Value for Vitamin A.
• Notice from the bottom of the label that this assumes a 2000 calorie per day diet.
• The % Daily values for each nutrient are also based on a 2000 calorie a day diet. You may eat fewer or more calories a day depending on your age, gender, activity level, current weight and if you are trying to lose or maintain your weight.
• As was mentioned above, the information contained in food labels can be used to make appropriate choices when selecting your purchases. For example, if you are on a sodium restricted diet, you may not want to select an item that contains 900mg of sodium per serving. You may want to select a food that contains lower levels of sodium, perhaps one with 20mg per serving. You will analyze food labels in this lab.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within limits.
• For the human body to function properly, homeostasis or balance must be maintained.
• This is accomplished through several built-in mechanisms of our metabolism to assure a healthy body.
• For example, our body temperature is maintained at approximately 98.60F or 370C. This is achieved by several body systems working together. If our body temperature goes too high, such as when there is a fever, we begin to sweat, and our peripheral blood vessels dilate (widen) to remove heat from the body. If our body temperature goes too low, we begin to shake for our muscles to generate heat, and our peripheral blood vessels constrict (get narrower) to conserve heat.
• Another example is blood sugar level. The amount of glucose (sugar) in our blood should be no higher than 100 mg/dl. Under normal circumstances, if the blood sugar level goes too high, the pancreas produces a hormone (protein), called insulin, to force the excess glucose out of the blood and into body cells. When the blood sugar level is too low, the pancreas produces another hormone, called glucagon, to move glucose out of body cells and into the bloodstream. If the pancreas is functioning correctly, this balance is maintained. However, if the pancreas is not functioning properly, such as in diabetes mellitus (“sugar diabetes”), then the blood glucose level rises too high. Over time, this can lead to harmful effects, such as cardiovascular disease, blindness, and neuropathy.
• A disease state occurs when homeostasis is not maintained. Below is a table that lists a variety of signs and symptoms and some possible diseases associated with these signs or symptoms. Below the table are some definitions of terms used in the table you may not be familiar with.
• Bronchitis – inflammation of the airways (bronchi, bronchioles).
• Cirrhosis of the liver – replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue.
• Colitis – inflammation of the colon.
• Dehydration – abnormally low water level in the body.
• Diabetes mellitus – also known as sugar diabetes; abnormally high blood sugar level.
• Edema – abnormal fluid build-up in body tissues.
• Gastroenteritis – inflammation of the stomach and/or intestines.
• Hepatitis – inflammation of the liver
• Hypernatremia – abnormally high blood sodium (salt) level.
• Hyperthyroidism – overactivity of the thyroid gland.
• Hypoglycemia – abnormally low blood glucose level.
• Hypothermia – abnormally low body temperature.
• Incontinence – inability to control urination.
• Meningitis – inflammation of the meninges (membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord).
• Pancreatitis – inflammation of the pancreas.
• RSV – Respiratory Syncytial Virus – respiratory infection.
• Sepsis – total body response to an infection.
• Septicemia – infection in the blood.
• Sinusitis – inflammation of the sinuses (cavities in the skull).
References https://images.search.yahoo.com/images Boyle, M.A. and Long, S. Personal Nutrition 7th Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA, 2010, p. I-19.
Non-majors College Biology Lab Manual © 2021 by Marie McGovern Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0